1.2+The+construction+of+the+atom

​ =The construction of the atom = =The proton = =is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1 elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons, but is also stable by itself and has a second identity as the hydrogen ion, H+. It is composed of three fundamental particles: two up quarks and one down quark = =The neutron = =is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. They are usually found in atomic nuclei. The nuclei of most atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines the type of element the atom forms. The number of neutrons is the neutron number and determines the isotope of an element. For example, the abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the very rare radioactive carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. = =The electron = =is a subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half integer value of //ħ//, which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, which is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sig n Subatomic particle= []

Though the word //atom// originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and a positive hydrogen ion has no electrons. The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9.11 × 10−31 kg, with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726 × 10−27 kg, although this can be reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom. Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of electrons, or 1.6929 × 10−27 kg. Neutrons and protons have comparable dimensions—on the order of 2.5 × 10−15 m—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined. In the Standard Model of physics, both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles called quarks. The quark belongs to the fermion group of particles, and is one of the two basic constituents of matter—the other being the lepton, of which the electron is an example. There are six types of quarks, each having a fractional electric charge of either +2/3 or −1/3. Protons are composed of two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles. The quarks are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is mediated by gluons. The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces. Nucleus
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/350px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png]]

The binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes. All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to FM, where //A// is the total number of nucleons. This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 105 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other. Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay. The neutron and the proton are different types of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical effect that prohibits //identical// fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum physical state at the same time. Thus every proton in the nucleus must occupy a different state, with its own energy level, and the same rule applies to all of the neutrons. This prohibition does not apply to a proton and neutron occupying the same quantum state. For atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with roughly matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay. However, with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus, which modifies this trend. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z = 20 (calcium); and as Z increases toward the heaviest nuclei, the ratio of neutrons per proton required for stability increases to about 1.5.

Illustration of a nuclear fusion process that forms a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a proton and a neutron, from two protons. A positron (e+)—anantimatter electron—is emitted along with an electron neutrino. The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier —and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element. If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values may be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle ), as described by Albert Einstein 's mass–energy equivalence formula, //E// = //mc//2, where //m// is the mass loss and //c// is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy which causes the fused particles to remain together in a state which require this energy to separate. The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel —a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.** Electron cloud
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/200px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png]]

A potential well, showing the minimum energy // V // ( // x // ) needed to reach each position // x //. A particle with energy // E // is constrained to a range of positions between // x // 1 and // x // 2. The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed in order for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations. Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave —a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron will appear to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns will rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and they differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.

Wave functions of the first five atomic orbitals. The three 2p orbitals each display a single angular node that has an orientation and a minimum at the center. Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines. The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy —is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 //million// eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals. The structure of the cloud varies with the number of electrons present in the cloud. There exist a number of different methods of electron counting, such as the octet rule and eighteen electron rule. These tend to be rules of thumb and are not valid across all atoms. Beginning chemistry students are often told the shell structure is simply 2, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, [...] to make the teaching process easier. The actual numbers of electrons per shell in the larger atoms can be considerably different, such as 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, but this complexity is reserved for the more advanced student. **

=[] [|​] =

= = List of Particles
 * This is a list of the different types of particles found or believed to exist in the whole of the universe. For individual lists of the different particles, see the individual pages given below. **

Elementary Particles
Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, they are not composed of other particles. They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the particles of the Standard Model have been observed, with the exception of the Higgs boson.

Abstract Falsificationism has dominated 20th century philosophy of science. It seemed to have eclipsed all forms of inductivism. Yet recent debates have revived a specific form of eliminative inductivism, the basic ideas of which go back to F. Bacon and J.S. Mill. These modern endorsements of eliminative inductivism claim to show that progressive problem solving is possible using induction, rather than falsification as a method of justification. But this common ground between falsificationism and eliminative inductivism has not led to a detailed investigation into the relationship, if any, which may exist between these two methodologies. This paper reviews several versions of eliminative inductivism, establishes a natural relation between eliminative inductivism and falsificationism, which derives from the distinction between models and theories, and carries out this investigation against a case study of the construction of atom models. The result of the investigation is that falsificationism is a form of eliminative inductivism in the limit of certain constraints. atom models - scientific constraints - enumerative inductivism - three versions of eliminative inductivism - models and theories - falsificationism.

=Estructure=

Smaller Than Atoms
Are there pieces of matter that are smaller than atoms? Sure there are. You'll soon be learning that atoms are composed of pieces like neutrons, electrons, and protons. But guess what? There are even smaller particles moving around in atoms. These super-small particles can be found inside the protons and neutrons. Scientists have many names for those pieces, but you may have heard of nucleons **and** quarks**. Nuclear chemists and physicists work together with particle accelerators to discover the presence of these tiny, tiny, tiny pieces of matter.

Even though those super tiny atomic particles exist, there are three basic parts of an atom. The parts are the** electrons**,** protons**, and** neutrons**. What are electrons, protons, and neutrons? A picture works best. You have a basic atom. There are three pieces to an atom. There are electrons, protons, and neutrons. That's all you have to remember. Three things! As you know, there are over 100 elements in the** periodic table**. The thing that makes each of those elements different is the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are always in the center of the atom. Scientists call the center of the atom the** nucleus**. The electrons are always found whizzing around the center in areas called orbitals.

You can also see that each piece has either a "+", "-", or a "0." That symbol refers to the charge of the particle. You know when you get a shock from a socket, static electricity, or lightning? Those are all different types of electric charges. There are even charges in tiny particles of matter like atoms. The electron always has a "-" or negative charge. The proton always has a "+" or positive charge. If the charge of an entire atom is "0", that means there are equal numbers of positive and negative pieces, equal numbers of electrons and protons. The third particle is the neutron. It has a neutral charge (a charge of zero). ​

ABOUT THE ESTRUCTURE AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ATOM.​

We can talk about the construction of the atom, but what construction?, of whose of the atomists? or the real atom construction?.the atomists all talks about how is the atom built, but if we need to talk about how the atom born we go to the creation of the universe, but that we need is know how the atom is composed. At first we have to know the real atom model. the real atom model consists principaly in 3 subparticles that can divide in other and smaller subparticles, those particles are the protons, neutrons and electrons, the protons and the neutrons are in the nucleus, so the nucleus is opmposed by the protons(positive charge) and the neutrons(neutral charge), the neutrons permit the status between protons, and around the nucleus are the electrons(negative charge). this sistem consist in a nucleus that have orbitals and in those orbitals are the electrons, can be 7 levels or orbits that when that orbits are closer to the atom has less electrons but when are farter are more electrons.like this is the way that the construction of the atom works

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in the video an the images are exp´lained how is the atom structure and how works. the pages needed to this text was youtube,com an the other pages from images

all was mine textual production Edwin Bedoya Cartdona numero 10 7b march 8 of 2010 **

=The proton = =is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1 elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons, but is also stable by itself and has a second identity as the hydrogen ion, H+. It is composed of three fundamental particles: two up quarks and one down quark = =The neutron = =is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. They are usually found in atomic nuclei. The nuclei of most atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines the type of element the atom forms. The number of neutrons is the neutron number and determines the isotope of an element. For example, the abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the very rare radioactive carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. = =<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; line-height: 115%;">The electron = =<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">is a subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half integer value of //ħ//, which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, which is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sig n <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 70%; text-align: right;">[] = =<span style="color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 53.86%; text-align: right;">[] = =<span style="color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 53.86%; text-align: right;">[] = =<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 134%;"><span style="color: #000000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 134%;">media type="youtube" key="-P4N-0Wbtyk" height="268" width="340" = = THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ATOM = THE ATOM IS COMFORMED BY ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS. THE ELECTRONS HAVE NEGATIVE CHARGE AND THEY ARE LOCATED ARROUN DE NUCLEUS.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Atoms join together to make molecules, Monomers, or molecules that join together to make longer strands, need to able to join to each other, and some of their atoms are in good position to do that. As a nuclear field of a nucleus pushes from surrounding ether less mobile mats to the nucleus, then the density of the ether round the nucleus is increasing at decreasing the distance up to the nucleus. To join two monomers together, an enzyme holds the two monomers close together, activating a certain group of atoms, and making them "sticky". In the world of molecules, such union means making a covalent bond between two sticky points.**
 * <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 176%;">construction of the atom **

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taken from: [] <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Tahoma,Geneva,sans-serif; font-size: 140%;">the constituction of the atom



<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;">Atoms are made up of 3 types of particles electrons, **<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">protons <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> ** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: normal;"> and **<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">neutrons <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">  **<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. These particles have different properties. Electrons are tiny, very light particles that have a negative electrical charge (-). Protons are much larger and heavier than electrons and have the opposite charge, protons have a positive charge. Neutrons are large and heavy like protons, however neutrons have no electrical charge. [] THEORY OF PROTON coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions play an essential role in a broad range of energy conversion processes, including photosynthesis and respiration. These reactions also form the basis of many types of solar fuel cells and electrochemical devices. Recent advances in the theory of PCET enable the prediction of the impact of system properties on the reaction rates. These predictions may guide the design of more efficient catalysts for energy production, including those based on artificial photosynthesis and solar energy conversion. This Account summarizes the theoretically predicted dependence of PCET rates on system properties and illustrates potential approaches for tuning the reaction rates in chemical systems. A general theoretical formulation for PCET reactions has been developed over the past decade. In this theory, PCET reactions are described in terms of nonadiabatic transitions between the reactant and product electron−proton vibronic states. A series of nonadiabatic rate constant expressions for both homogeneous and electrochemical PCET reactions have been derived in various well-defined limits. Recently this theory has been extended to include the effects of solvent dynamics and to describe ultrafast interfacial PCET. Analysis of the rate constant expressions provides insight into the underlying physical principles of PCET and enables the prediction of the dependence of the rates on the physical properties of the system. Moreover, the kinetic isotope effect, which is the ratio of the rates for hydrogen and deuterium, provides a useful mechanistic probe. Typically the PCET rate will increase as the electronic coupling and temperature increase and as the total reorganization energy and equilibrium proton donor−acceptor distance decrease. The rate constant is predicted to increase as the driving force becomes more negative, rather than exhibit turnover behavior in the inverted region, because excited vibronic product states associated with low free energy barriers and relatively large vibronic couplings become accessible. The physical basis for the experimentally observed pH dependence of PCET reactions has been debated in the literature. When the proton acceptor is a buffer species, the pH dependence may arise from the protonation equilibrium of the buffer. It could also arise from kinetic complexity of competing concerted and sequential PCET reaction pathways. In electrochemical PCET, the heterogeneous rate constants and current densities depend strongly on the overpotential. The change in equilibrium proton donor−acceptor distance upon electron transfer may lead to asymmetries in the Tafel plots and deviations of the transfer coefficient from the standard value of one-half at zero overpotential. Applications of this theory to experimentally studied systems illustrate approaches that can be utilized to tune the PCET rate. For example, the rate can be tuned by changing the pH or using different buffer species as proton acceptors. The rate can also be tuned with site-specific mutagenesis in biological systems or chemical modifications that vary the substituents on the redox species in chemical systems. Understanding the impact of these changes on the PCET rate may assist experimental efforts to enhance energy conversion processes. []

= THE CONSTITUCTION OF THE ATOM = = =